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The implication of Rousseau’s idea was that the inner life was something significant

and worthwhile in itself; and because it felt itself in conflict with society as it
traditionally existed, then it was society that must change. This was the most
profoundly revolutionary moment of modern times. It was the birth of modern
politics, which is about developing competing programmes to change and even
transform society for the better. By “politicising” the inner life, Rousseau had given
birth to all the many competing “isms” of modern times.

The inner life of nationalism
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One of which was nationalism. The late 18 century German philosopher Johann
Herder argued that among the strongest influences on your inner life were the place,
people and culture where you grew up. Identifying more strongly with the idea of
your national homeland was coming to define the inner lives of more and more
Europeans. Nor was this a purely or even mostly rational matter; emotion played a
huge part. The political programme that followed from this, to make states coincide
with nations, had major ramifications. Where people lived under foreign rule, major

adjustments to existing frontiers would be demanded. Italy was a case in point. This
would fuel revolutions and wars throughout the 19th century. It was the tide that
Mazzini was riding, and the one Metternich was trying to resist.

And not just nationalism. As we’ll see, the inner life, once politicised, would fuel
other “isms”, other modern political programmes and ideologies that would demand
that society be adapted to its particular dictates. This set the agenda for the 19th
century and beyond.

Mazzini: nationalism as a moral crusade
His philosophy of nationalism was very distinctive. He wanted a Europe where every
nationality had its own democratic republic. Following Johan Herder, he believed
each nation had its own particular mission. Individuals would find fulfilment though
participation in the democratic life of their nation. But achieving this Europe of

nation states would be an uphill struggle. There was widespread suspicion of
democracy, even, as we’ve seen, in liberal Victorian Britain. And Europe was a
continent of monarchies, not republics. Further, his native Italy was divided into
seven separate states (39 in Germany). One was ruled by the Pope. Many Italians
lived under foreign rule, principally Austrian. The Balkans in a similar state.

We tend to think that there is something “natural” about living in a nation state. In
fact, the impact of nationalism was spectacularly disruptive of the European status
quo. The conquests of the French Revolutionaries and Napoleon had given nationalist

feeling a tremendous boost. Many welcomed the arrival of French Revolutionary